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BHIE-144
- ➤ Question 1: Put the bracketed verb in the correct form in the following sentences and identify the verb phrase type:
- ➤ Question 2: Give the meanings of the following phrasal verbs. Use them in sentences of your own.
- ➤ Question 3: Make sentences to bring out the difference in meanings.
- ➤ Question 4: State if the verbs in each of the following sentences are used as auxiliaries or as main verbs: (Any 5).
- ➤ Question 5: Give the negative and question forms of the following sentences:
- ➤ Question 6: Change the direct expressions into indirect forms and the indirect expressions into indirect forms.
- ➤ Question 7: Write short notes on any 4 of the following:
- ➤ Question 8: Discuss the various patterns of repetition used by poets to elevate their writings. Give examples.
Assignment - I
(2 x 20 = 40 Marks)
Answer the following in about 500 words each.
Q1. What do you know about Kalidas and his literary marvels?
Answer: Kalidas is regarded as one of the most brilliant and celebrated poets and dramatists of ancient India. Writing in classical Sanskrit, he is often considered the epitome of literary excellence in the Indian tradition.
Although exact details about his life remain uncertain, most scholars associate him with the Gupta period, which is often referred to as the Golden Age of Indian culture. His works demonstrate a refined command of language, deep insight into human emotions, and a remarkable ability to integrate nature, mythology, and philosophy.
Among his most admired works are his three dramas-Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvashiyam, and Abhijnanasakuntalam. The first, Malavikagnimitram, presents a romantic plot between King Agnimitra and the beautiful Malavika, a court dancer. Vikramorvashiyam portrays the love story of King Pururavas and the celestial nymph Urvashi.
The most famous of the three, Abhijnanasakuntalam, based on an episode from the Mahabharata, stands out for its literary depth and emotional complexity. The play was highly regarded by German writer Goethe and contributed to Kalidas's international recognition during the colonial period.
Kalidas was not only a dramatist but also a master of epic and lyrical poetry. His two mahakavyas-Raghuvamsha and Kumarasambhava-are held in high esteem. Raghuvamsha traces the lineage of the Raghu dynasty, to which Rama belonged, while Kumarasambhava narrates the birth of Kartikeya, the son of Shiva and Parvati.
His lyrical poem Meghaduta is especially celebrated for its evocative imagery and emotional intensity, telling the story of a yaksha exiled from his beloved who sends a message to her through a passing cloud.
The aura surrounding Kalidas's literary reputation seems to have influenced how later rulers engaged with literary production and intellectual culture. One such example is Harshavardhana, the 7th-century ruler of Kannauj.
Known for his administrative acumen and political strength, Harsha is also credited with having authored three Sanskrit plays Ratnavali, Priyadarshika, and Nagananda. The first two are light-hearted romantic dramas, while Nagananda is philosophically rich, influenced by Buddhist thought.
However, the authenticity of Harsha's authorship has been a subject of debate among historians. Though his court poet Banabhatta and other chroniclers praised him for his literary skill, many medieval scholars expressed doubts about his role as the sole author. Historian Sharma aptly notes that "royal authors are only half authors," suggesting that literary works were often attributed to kings to enhance their stature.
This practice of associating monarchs with intellectual and artistic achievements was likely a continuation of a cultural trend that began during the Gupta period, particularly seen in the court of Samudragupta, whose eulogist Harishena celebrated his king as a poet and scholar.
Literary authorship came to symbolize a king's cultivation and sophistication. As Sanskrit became the preferred medium of high culture, being recognized as a writer added to a ruler's prestige. Writing became a performance of refinement and power.
Instruction in Sanskrit was common among princes, often provided through private tutors and monastic institutions. This created a culture in which learning and d a culture in whi authorship were closely linked to kingship.
Mahendravarman I, a contemporary of Harsha from the Pallava dynasty, was also regarded as a literary ruler. He is credited with the satirical Sanskrit play Mattavilasa Prahasana, which mocked the eccentricities of different religious sects and provided insight into the urban life of the time.
Q2. "History conveys ethical instructions". Commend in the light of Rajatarangini.
Answer: The statement "History conveys ethical instructions" finds a profound resonance in Kalhana's Rajatarangini, a 12th-century Sanskrit chronicle of the kings of Kashmir. While it is often considered the first true historical text in Indian literature, the Rajatarangini is much more than a record of kings and events. It is a moral and philosophical reflection on power, responsibility, and the fleeting nature of human life, crafted within the framework of poetic and didactic kavya tradition.
Kalhana's historical method did not aim solely to document events with factual accuracy. Rather, it was imbued with the kavya mandate of upadesha, or ethical instruction, particularly in the domain of rajadharma the moral principles that should guide kingship and governance.
This ethical dimension becomes the guiding thread of the narrative, where kings are not merely historical figures but exemplars through which values such as justice, generosity, self-restraint, and wisdom are illustrated and tested.
The Rajatarangini evaluates rulers based on these moral standards. Kalhana plots the course of Kashmir's history as a moral tale, juxtaposing kings of virtue with those of vice. For example, the tyrannical and indulgent King Vibhishana is followed by his morally upright son Siddha. The brutal Mihirakula is contrasted with the righteous Baka.
These pairings serve to emphasize the consequences of moral and immoral rule, underscoring the poet's belief that ethical governance leads to stability and prosperity, while tyranny invites downfall. This comparative structure does not merely provide historical continuity; it constructs a moral discourse on political power.
Kalhana's vision also introduces a metaphysical dimension to history. In one striking passage, he highlights the impermanence of royal power and worldly possessions. He reflects on the tragic irony that even kings who once enjoyed immense wealth and authority are eventually abandoned by fortune, left powerless in death.
The poet questions the value of treasures, ornaments, and power when all are rendered meaningless by mortality. These reflections serve to humble the powerful and remind them of the ultimate futility of ambition unanchored in moral purpose.
In presenting history as a sequence of moral parables, Kalhana constructs what can be described as a narrative of ethical exemplarity. His text thus transcends mere annals of kings and becomes a tool for political and philosophical instruction. The moral order to which kings are expected to adhere is not simply a personal code but a public necessity, for justice, peace.
and the well-being of subjects depend on the king's adherence to dharma. Kalhana asserts that kings who harm their subjects perish, while those who restore order and justice are rewarded, even in their lineage. This causality transforms history into a moral science where ethical principles are not just preached but proven through the fate of rulers.
Moreover, Kalhana's understanding of time and history is deeply ethical and existential. He opens his chronicle with the idea that his work is a balancing remedy for the fluctuating fortunes of rulers. The Rajatarangini thus becomes a guide for kings to maintain equilibrium in times of prosperity and adversity. This notion reflects a broader Indian historical tradition, where the goal is not just to chronicle events but to derive moral and spiritual meaning from them.
Assignment - II
(3 x 10 = 30 Marks)
Answer the following questions in about 250 words each.
Q3. Define the term 'hagiography' and bring out the salient features of hagiographicliterature.
Answer: The term hagiography refers to the biographies of saints, religious leaders, and revered figures, often emphasizing their spiritual virtues, miraculous deeds, and exemplary lives. These texts are typically written by followers or devotees, usually long after the death of the saint, and are marked by legendary and mythical elements.
Some scholars view hagiographies as exaggerated miracle-stories or sectarian propaganda, with limited historical value. They argue that the miracle narratives follow archetypal patterns found in Islamic traditions, Puranic tales, and nathpanthi lore, reflecting religious ideals rather than historical realities.
Over time, these legends tend to grow in magnitude, transforming figures like Shaikh Moinuddin Chishti and Kabir into mythic personas. For instance, later sufi hagiographies portray Chishti as a zealous missionary using supernatural powers to convert non-Muslims, while Kabir is reimagined in a mythological Puranic framework by Kabirpanthi writers of the 18th century.
Since these accounts are composed decades or even centuries after the saint's life, historians approach them critically. They caution against accepting miraculous events as fact and emphasize the importance of corroborating hagiographic claims with external, reliable sources. If contradictions arise, the latter should be given preference.
Despite their legendary elements, hagiographies hold significant historical value. They reflect the religious culture, narrative style, and socio-political concerns of the period in which they were written and circulated. Scholars use them to explore the cultural history of medieval India, particularly between the 14th and 18th centuries.
Through a careful reading, separating myth from fact, historians have reconstructed aspects of the lives of figures like Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti, Kabir, and Guru Nanak. Thus, while not straightforward biographies, hagiographies remain vital resources for understanding devotional traditions, sectarian developments, and the broader cultural landscape of their time.
Q4. Do you agree that on some very important matters barni has almost misled laterhistorians?
Answer: Yes, it can be argued that on several significant matters, ZiyauddinBarani's writings have misled later historians, largely due to his selective memory, personal biases, and retrospective ideological framing. Mohammad Habib rightly points out that Barani composed his Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi without access to official documents or archival material, relying solely on his memory and personal experience.
This led to several inaccuracies and omissions, such as his failure to mention the important invasion of India by Tarmashirin. His misleading account of Muhammad bin Tughlaq's token currency has also contributed to the Sultan's persistent portrayal as 'stark mad' by later scholars.
Barani's writings often projected his own ideas through the voices of historicalfigures. As Peter Hardy, Syed Hassan Barani, and A.B.M. Habibullah note, many dialogues and sermons in his text appear to be fabricated, serving more as a platform for Barani's ideological agenda than as accurate historical documentation.
His Fatawa-i-Jahandari, although presented as advice to Sultans, reflects theoretical ideals that often overlap with the narrative in his Tarikh, raising doubts about the authenticity of both.
Moreover, Barani's changing political loyalties affected his narrative. His first version of the Tarikh praised Muhammad bin Tughlaq, whom he served under, whereas the second version, written under Firuz Shah, revised or omitted many positive aspects of the former ruler and adopted a tone more aligned with Firuz's court.
His shift from tolerance of low-born officers in the first version to sharp condemnation in the second highlights how his writing was influenced by personal and political motives. Thus, Barani's texts must be read with caution, not as straightforward chronicles, but as ideologically driven accounts that have indeed misled several later historians.
Q5. Discuss the account of Vijaynagar city provided by Domingo paes.
Answer: Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller who visited Vijayanagara between 1520-1522 during the reign of Krishnadevaraya, provides a rich and detailed account of the city's grandeur, administration, society, and rituals. He referred to Vijayanagara as the "Kingdom of Narsymga" and compared its vastness and architectural splendour to that of Rome.
Paes described the city as densely populated, with nearly one lakh houses and a cosmopolitan character, where traders from various nations lived and engaged in commerce, particularly in precious stones and fine commodities.
Paes vividly recounts the city's fortifications, broad streets, and vibrant markets, especially the grand bazaar near the Virupaksha temple, which sold everything from fruits and clothes to horses and jewellery. He also noted the presence of a separate Muslim quarter and their employment in royal service. He extensively described three temples Vitthaleshwar, Virupaksha, and an unnamed third-highlighting their architecture, sculptures, rituals, and religious significance.
The Mahanavami festival held at the House of Victory is another major event described by Paes. This nine-day celebration included religious processions, dances, fireworks, and the ritual worship of royal horses. The festival culminated in a military review by the king, showcasing the strength and organization of the army.
Paes also offers insights into Krishnadevaraya's personality and governance. He describes the king as fair-complexioned, robust, and bearing smallpox marks. He details the king's military campaigns, especially the conquest of Odisha, and diplomatic marriage alliance with the Gajapati dynasty.
Furthermore, Paes provides valuable information on irrigation projects like massive tanks and the role of Nayakas in administration. His account, verified by archaeological evidence, remains a crucial source for understanding the socio-political and cultural fabric of Vijayanagara.
Assignment - III
(6 x 5 = 30 Marks)
Answer the following questions in about 100 words each.
Q6. Malfuzat literature
Answer: Malfuzat (plural of malfuz) are oral discourses of sufi saints recorded in written texts by their followers. They contain the teachings of the sufi saints. Fawaid-ul Fuwad (Morals for the Heart) is the earliest and perhaps the most important collection of the malfuzat written during the medieval period. This work contains the conversations and sayings of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1242-1325), the most famous sufi saint of the Sultanate period. It was written in Persian by his disciple, Amir Hasan Sijzi. Fawaid-ul Fuwad became the model for later malfuzat that came to be written from the middle of the fourteenth century.
Q7. Bakhar
Answer: Bakhars play an important role in the construction of Maratha polity as itrecords many important events. Some serve as biography of eminent statesmenof the Maratha period even if they seem to be eulogies dedicated by a loyalistto a ruler. Dynastic identity thus merged with and built on regional pride forthe construction of a common glorious past. Bakhars are prose historical narratives which were written in the sixteenth century but the bulk of them were composed from the late seventeenth century onwards until carly nineteenth century. These narratives numbering about 200 were composed as biographies of great rulers, genealogies of prominent families or accounts of momentous battles. Bakhars are known for representing the prose genre in Marathi having literary merits more than actual historical value.
Q8. Ibn Battuta
Answer: The most important and exhaustive travelogue on India is that of Ibn Battutaa Moorish traveller from Tangier. He began his sojourn at a very young age of 21 in 1325, journeying through Egypt, Syria, Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Turkey and Transoxiana through the north-western gateway, reached the valley of Indus in 1333, from where he was escorted with honour to Delhi. He was received well and was assigned the duty of a Malikiteqazi at Delhi by the then Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351).
He remained in Muhammad bin Tughlaq's service for long eight years, thence again embarked on his adventures as an ambassador of Muhammad bin Tughlaq to China via the western coast of India, Maldives (twice), Sri Lanka, Bengal, Assam and Sumatra, reaching the Chinese port of Zaitun (modern Quanzhou). He is reported to have met the Chinese emperor in Beijing.
From thence, he returned in 1353 to his homeland via Sumatra, Malabar, the Persian Gulf, Iraq, Syria and Egypt. On his arrival, the Marinid Sultan Abu Inan asked him to pen down his adventurous journey and commissioned Ibn Juzayy to compile Ibn Battuta's narrative, Rihla, which was finally completed in 1357.
Q9. Subaltern historiography
Answer: Subaltern historiography emerged from the series of volumes, known as the Subaltern Studies, initially edited by Ranajit Guha. This series began in 1982 and it had published 12 volumes by 2005. The first six volumes were edited by the founder of this project, Ranajit Guha. After that each volume was edited by individual scholars belonging to the group. Over a period of more than 20 years, this intellectual project in Indian historiography became and remained very influential.
The Subaltern Studies was declared by its adherents to herald a new school of history-writing constituting a radical break from all the existing trends in Indian historiography. A group of scholars, who were critical of the contemporary history-writing in India, joined and contributed to the volumes.
There were others also, who were not part of the core group, wrote articles for these volumes. It was planned in the beginning to be only a series of three volumes, but later it continued for long with more and more historians associated with it. The themes it covered also proliferated into various directions, including non-Indian Third World countries. Initially, its contributors were influenced by Gramsci and Marxist social historians in the West.
Q10. Labour History
Answer: In the field of labour history too we are seeing new trends emerging. Labour history writing in India at the turn of the twentieth century was initiated by a group of scholars, trade union and nationalist activists who were opposed to the capitalist and colonial relations shaping the Indian society.
Many of this group of people had associated with the working class and nationalist protests and trade union activities. The character of the capitalist relations was not clearly defined at this stage of Indian development and neither was the nature of the working class well defined. It was this rather inchoate and transitional stage of social relations that this group sought
to understand and analyse.<